What the heck is CANEL?
Gathered in our Medieval kitchen, two cooks and three taste testers contemplated
the recipe "Brawn en Peuerade" -from England, Fifteenth Century. It's for
Pork or chicken in a thick wine sauce. The original recipe from Harleian
MS 279, Potage Dyvers, included the line,
".....xxxj. Brawn en Peuerade. Take Wyne an powder Canel, and ..."
"What the heck is 'canel' ?" said my lovely bride.
"Cinnamon." said another cook.
Our friend from overseas chimed in,"Cinnamon? or Cassia?"
"What's Cassia?"
"That's what you Yanks call cinnamon. But it's not."
"Really?"
"Yep."
And thereby hangs a tale....
As noted in: The Book of Spices c. 1969 by Frederic Rosengarten,
Jr., in a chart in his book, nearly all modern languages call cinnamon by
some variation of "canel". In Spanish, cassia is canela de la china, while
in French, it's Cannelle de Cochinchine. All the rest of modern languages,
pretty much, call cassia cassia. Technically, "cinnamon" is Cinnamomum
zeylanicum, and "cassia" is Cinnamomum cassia. In the U. S., both cinnamon
and cassia and other species of cassia are all called "cinnamon". Their similarity
in flavor is remarkable, and can be found noted as early as Galen, in the
2nd Century AD, where he said, "the finest cassia differs so little from
the lowest quality cinnamon that the first may be substituted for the second,
provided a double weight of it is used." In the Bible, Exodus 30:23-25,
Moses was told to use cinnamon and cassia and other spices, to make anointing
oil for the tabernacle of the congregation of the Children of Israel:
"Take thou also unto thee principal spices, of pure myrrh five hundred
shekels, and of sweet cinnamon half so much, even two hundred and fifty shekels,
and of sweet calamus two hundred and fifty shekels, And of cassia five hundred
shekels, after the shekel of the sanctuary..."
Note that twice as much cassia as cinnamon (Galen's reccomended substitution
formula) is required in Biblical anointing. Note also that true cinnamon
is almost invariably described as 'sweet', as it is here.
True Cinnamon
Here's a modern description of cinnamon:
Cinnamon has a "clean, light-colored bark which curls as it dries, assuming
the appearance of a quill......it's dried inner bark is the 'true' cinnamon
of commerce.....The flowers are small, yellow, and inconspicuous. The berries-about
1/2 to 1 inch long-are dark purple, ovoid, and one-seeded.....during drying
the smaller quills are inserted into the larger quills, forming smooth,
pale brown, canelike bundles or compound quills about 3 feet long that are
known as 'pipes'."
Cinnamomum Cassia
Here are some modern descriptions of cassia:
"The spice named cassia should not be confused with the large genus Cassia
in the Leguminosae or pea family from which senna leaves are obtained."
"Cassia bark resembles true cinnamon bark but is coarser and thicker,
has a more intense aroma, has a higher essential oil content, and is not
so delicately flavored as cinnamon. Cassia powder is reddish brown, while
cinnamon powder is tan in color."
"The dried unripe fruits of cassia are called 'cassia buds.' Highly aromatic,
they resemble little cloves, are popular in confections, and may be used
to add cinnamon flavor..." Keep that bit about resembling little cloves
in mind, more on this later. We cannot get cassia buds in the U. S. , as
they are produced in Communist China and prohibited here.
(All quotes not otherwise designated are from The Book of Spices
c. 1969 by Frederic Rosengarten, Jr.")
The Case for Canel=Cassia
In A Proper newe Booke of Cokerye (mid-16th c.; 1545?) we find:
" For to make wardens in Conserue.... ....and then caste in the pouders,
as fyne canel, synamon, pouder of gynger and such other...."
Here Canel and Synamon both are mentioned, both "pouders", so synamon and
canel cannot be the same. So, assuming it's one or the other, canel=cassia.
In The Boke of Nurture by John Russel (15th century England), he
says, "Synamome is for lordes, but canelle was for common people." Rosengarten,
in The Book of Spices, is of the opinion that the cannelle spoken
of in this example is cassia. So canel = cassia. From the 14th century author,
G. Dominici, Trattato della Santissima Carita (Siena, 1513), we have:
'Onde sai che dallo Oriente Vengano gherofeni, canella, cinnamomo, noci moscade,
ecc.' Here, despite language differences, we can see that canel and cinnamon
are not the same. So canel=cassia. All the above examples would seem to
prove reasonably that canel was cassia. But there are a few counter-examples.
The Case for Canel=Cinnamon
In Francesco di Balduccio Pegolotti's La Practica della mercatura
(The Practice of Commerce-Florence, between 1310-1340, fourteenth century),
he lists items in the market. These include:
*Cinnamon of the sporta *Cinnamon of the gabbia Cassia Bark *Cinnamon
flowers (cassia buds?) Terra di Cannella (literally, "Earth of Canel".
Cinnamon or Cassia dust?)
Note: the ones with the asterisks were listed as minute spices, meaning
small volume, high cost.
Note II: sporta and gabbia are two different containers in use in the market.
It might also mean differing grades of cinnamon which were differentiated
by the containers it was sold in, or differing size of the lots.
Note III: the actual terms used are canella and cassia This would seem to
show that canel=cinnamon.
Just to really confuse the issue, we have this gem from: El libro di
mercatantie et usanze de' paesi, or The Book of the Wares and Usages
of Diverse Countries, Ragusa, 1458 (stuff in parens is my comments)
"...Cannella (cannella in italian) ought to have a reddish and delicate
color and be grooved, and it ought to be strong and sweet, that is, pungent;
and (if it is) like that, it is good...."(this sounds like classic cinnamon
as described in modern texts, and note the description, sweet, like in the
Bible description.)
"...Cassia (cassia in italian) ought to be thick and heavy, and it's seed
ought to make no sound (when rubbed), and it's stalk ought to be whole,
and it's bark should not peel off...." (this sounds pretty much like modern
descriptions of cassia in texts.)
"...Cinnamon (cienamonno in italian) ought to be fine, black, hot, and
very pungent..."(??? described differently and listed again?)
Notice we have all three terms in use in the same document, all differing
descriptions. According to this document, we would have to assume that cassia,
canel and cinnamon are three different items!!! So what is our third item,
listed as cienamonno? According to the 1st century AD book, The Periplus
of the Erythraean Sea, "cinnamon leaf was exported from the Malabar coast
of India. These leaves (were)...used in the preparation of ointments by the
Greeks and Romans...." Could our black substance be cinnamon leaf? Or perhaps
the dried flowers of cinnamon? Or some other part of the plant? Could that
fine black substance be from those dark purple cinnamon berries?
Cloves or Cassia Buds? Flower, "Flowre" or "Pouder"?
This is an original recipe from MS Douce 257:
Gely ------- Tak hoggys fet other pyggys, other erys, other pertricys
othere chiconys, do hem togedere seth hem in a pot; do in hem flowre
of canel and clowys hole or grounde. Do thereto vineger, do the broth
in a clene vessel of al thys, tak the flesch and kerf yt in smale morselys
do yt therein. Tak powder of galyngale cast aboue lat yt kele. Tak bronchys
of the lorere tre styk ouer it, kep yt al so longe as thou wilt serue
yt forth
Does flowre indicate pouderd or flower? Does clowys mean cloves? Remember
that description of cassia buds as looking like little cloves? We have to
wonder if cloves are meant, or "cloves" that are cassia buds? If it just
means, use the flower and the buds whole or ground; then it just means to
use only cinnamon flowers and buds in this recipe. Putting in cloves then
alters the culinary meaning quite a lot. Of course, if it's a powdered canel,
we still have the problem of whether it's cassia or cinnamon. In "Farsure
For Chekyns", (This recipe is from Arundel MS 334.) we can be more
sure about the cloves.
"Take fressh porke, and sethe hit, and hew hit smal, and grinde hit
wel; and put therto harde (y)olkes of egges, and medel hom wel togedur, and
do therto raisynges of corance, and pouder of canel, and maces, and quibiz,
and of clowes al hole; and colour hit with saffron, and do hit into the
chekyns; and then parboyle hom, and roste, and endore hom with raw (y)olkes
of egges, and flaume hom if hit be nede, and serve hit forthe."
Here's yet another "pouder" of canel. Here cloves is used in a separate
place, so cloves is probably exactly what is meant. This example at least
shows canel and cloves being used in the same recipe, so we know that the
two spices were used together. In Harleian MS. 279 Vyaunde Furnez
describes a "Crustade", a pie of veal, herbs, dates, and eggs.
"Crustade.
Take vele, an smyte in lytle pecys in-to a potte, an wayssche yt fayre;
than take fayre water, lat yt boyle to-gedre with Percely, Sawge, Sauerey,
Ysope aml y-now and hew; whan it is on boiling, take pouder Peper, Canell
Clowys, Maces, Safroun..."
At first I assumed the comma after "Canell" had been left out. Then I saw
the description of modern cassia buds in which they are described as "resembling
cloves". So this could be cassia buds. From England in the Fourteenth Century,
we have this rabbit served in a wine-currant sauce, found in the original
recipe from Forme of Cury,
Connynges in Cyrip.
Take connynges and seeth them wel in good broth. Take wyne greke and
do therto with a porcioun of vynegar and flour of canel, hoole clowes,
quybibes hoole, and oother gode spices, with raisouns coraunce and gyngyuer
ypared and ymynced. Take vp the connynges and smyte hem on pecys and cast
hem in to the siryppe, and seeth them a litel in fere, and serue it forth.
Here we have "flour" of canel. Do we assume this is powdered cassia? Or
the flower of the cinnamon or cassia plant? Or cassia buds, which, incidentally,
may be clove of canel, as it looks a little like a clove. Are these "whole
clowes" cloves or cassia buds? The more there is to be seen, the more questions
there are. Here's yet another "flour" entry. Flower, meaning cassia buds?
or Flour, meaning "Pouder" of cinnamon?
"Leche frys in lentoun" England, 14th century. An Almond Milk fruit
pie from The Forme of Cury. Leche frys in lentoun. Drawe a thik
almaunde mylke with water. Take dates and pyke hem clene with apples and
peeres, mynce hem with prunes damysyns; take out the stones out of the
prunes, kerue the prunes a two. Do therto raisouns, coraunce, sugur, flour
of canel, hoole macys and clowes, gode powdours salt; colour hem vp with
saundres. Meng thise with oile. Make a coffyn as thou didest bifore do
this fars then bake it wel, and serue it forth
In this recipe from Goud Kokery (fourteenth century) we again have
canel and cloves listed in a separate enough fashion that we can be fairly
sure cloves are meant.
" Potus ypocras. Take a half lb. of canel tried; (tried=ground up?) of
gyngyuer tried, a half lb.; of greynes, iii unce; of longe peper, iii unce;
of clowis, ii unce; of notemugges, ii unce & a half; of carewey, ii
unce; of spikenard, a half unce; of galyngale, ii unce; of sugir, ii lb.
(2 pounds!) Si deficiat sugir, take a potel of honey. "
Conclusion
Language usage shifts, translation sloppiness, and the similarity of
cassia and cinnamon have rendered it impossible to say, with any surety,
in our modern re-creations which recipes include "Canel" or "Cinnamomum"
or "Cassia" or "Flowre" or "Poudre" as in our references above. Your canel
might be cinnamon or cassia, so try halving or doubling your amount to taste.
Your Floure might be poudre or flour or flower or cassia bud. Your references
to clove, if next to cassia or cinnamon, might not be clove, but clove of
cinnamon. The best guess we may ever have is to put "cinnamon to taste".
For floure, you might look at the context and decide if wheat flour mixed
with cinnamon might be meant, unlikely as it seems. Or perhaps cassia buds,
or the dried flowers of cassia. Or for the "clove" references, some decision
as to the flavor being clove of cinnamon (or cassia buds) instead might affect
the end product. In the absence of definitive description, we might never
really know what our ancestors used. We are woefully aware that we have not
resolved these issues. It is hoped that putting this information out to be
perused by others will help to further our knowledge in this area. For now,
be aware that experience in re-creation cooking has often shown that when
the recipe seems wildly over or under spiced, later research shows that the
measures used had drifted or the terminology was misunderstood, and with
further knowledge the result is much closer to satisfying our modern palate.
Past taste was not as different as we previously thought from our own. Common
sense and a cook's own good taste will ever be our own best guide.
Bibliography:
The Boke of Nurture by John Russel (15th century England)
The Book of Spices c. 1969 by Frederic Rosengarten, Jr. The quote taken
from "The Periplus of the Erythrean Sea" and most of the modern descriptions
of cinnamon and cassia were found here.
Curye on Inglish: English Culinary Manuscripts of the Fourteenth-Century
(Including the Forme of Cury). Hieatt, Constance B. and Sharon Butler. New
York: for The Early English Text Society by the Oxford University Press,
1985
Description Of Elizabethan England, 1577, William Harrison (1534-1593):
(from Holinshed's Chronicles)
El libro di mercatantie et usanze de' paesi, ed. by F. Borlandi "The Book
of the Wares and Usages of Diverse Countries", Ragusa, 1458 Taken from:
Medieval Trade in the Mediterranean World by Lopez and Raymond-Columbia Univ.
Press, 1955
La Practica della mercatura-Francesco di Balduccio Pegolotti "The Practice
of Commerce"-Florence, between 1310-1340, fourteenth century Taken from:
Medieval Trade in the Mediterranean World by Lopez and Raymond-Columbia Univ.
Press, 1955
King James Bible, Exodus 30:23-25
A Proper newe Booke of Cokerye (mid-16th c.; 1545?) Frere, Catherine Frances
(ed.): A proper newe booke of cokerye. With notes, introduction and glossary;
together with some account of domestic life, cookery and feasts in Tudor
days, and of the first owner of the book, Matthew Parker, Archbishop of
Canterbury, and Margaret Parker his wife. Cambridge: W. Heffer & Sons
Ltd. 1913
Sauce Camelyne from Ashmole MS 1429 and Sauce Sarcenes Taken from An Ordinance
of Pottage - Hieatt, Constance B. London: Prospect Books Ltd, 1988
Trattato della Santissima Carita (Siena, 1513) by G. Dominici, from: Medieval
Trade in the MediterraneanWorld by Lopez and Raymond-Columbia Univ. Press,
1955
Here Begins a set of notes which were added after this paper was done.
I believe it solves the riddle.
This
is from the entry for Cassia Negra, Cassia Fistula, Cassia Purgatrix (he
equates all these and note: says the apothecaries call it cannella and substitute
it for right cinnamon. This would indicate that the Elizabethans knew the
difference, and apothecaries specifically called cinnamon cannella. But
Cassia rolled in pipes and tastes like Cinnamon came from Indo-China, not
from Egypt. That sounds like a description of the source of Senna, Cassia
Fistula, Cassia Negra, or Black Cassia, which is indeed “Purgatrix”. See
below.)
Just
to confuse the issue...also from Gerarde...
So
lavender has been falsely called casia by some....lovely.
And
thus Gerarde on Cinnamon and Cassia.
It
was taxed.
====================================================
Excerpted items from: The rates of the custome house: London, 1545 -
Item Toll
Synnamon
the C. pounde x.li
It
wasn't terribly expensive.
============================================================
This
is a translation from the food and cookery chapter of Le Ménagier
de Paris (a medieval manuscript dated to circa 1393), edited by Jérome
Pichon in 1846 for La Société Des Bibliophiles François.
Note:
This was translated from the French edition of Jerome Pichon published in
1846.
Footnotes marked JP are by him; those marked JH are by Janet Hinson, the
translator;
those marked DDF and EGC are by David Friedman and Elizabeth
Cook,
respectively.
(c)
Janet Hinson
A
half-pound
of
ground cinnamon, five sous.
Here's
what confused Gerarde...
============================================================
From:
Approoved Medicines and Cordiall receiptes: 1580
Caffia
fistula, Blacke Caffia
This
is a certain fruit, or podde brought from AEgypt, the pulpe of it is Laxative,
urgeth cholier, and tempereth the bloud: The Tree thereof now groweth in
Italy.
(margin
note...Lax. Serapi. Simple Ameen. 20 Canonico Melue de simplo.)
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Clues:
It's a pod, not bark. It's from Egypt. The pod's pulp is a laxative. It's
Black. The Cassia mentioned in the 1300's document that's black is a form
of Cassia Senna. (More often known medievally as Senna. Check early list
for Senna, look for exact terms.)
Here's
a modern note on the effects of “Black Cassia”...
============================================================================
*
Elujoba, A. et.al, 1989. Chemical and Biological Analyses of Nigerian Cassia
Species for Laxative Activity. J Pharm Biomed Anal 7 12: 1453-1457 (1989)
Various
Cassia plants have been known since the 9th or 10th century as purgatives
and laxatives including Cassia angustifolia and Cassia senna which is
known as Senna. Fedegoso or Cassia occidentalis, is a small tree growing
5 to 8 meters in height which is found in many tropical areas of South America
including the Amazon. Indigenous to Brazil, it is also found in warmer climates
and tropical areas of South, Central and North America. It is in the same
genus as Senna and is sometimes called "Coffee Senna" since its seeds, found
in long seed pods, are sometimes roasted and made into a coffee-like beverage.
Senna
(Cassia Senna) from the leaves and pods of a Near Eastern shrub and also
(Cassia acutifolia).
=============================================
Gerarde
on "Sena"
=============================================
] 
From
the above new sources, I'm ready to take a stab at identifying these items.
For starters, Gerarde has confused the source of “Black Cassia”
with that of “Cassia”. He's got Cassia coming from Egypt, presumably Black
Cassia, or Senna. (When he describes Senna, he's got it coming from Egypt,
too.) Yet he is describing the same Cassia as being falsely given out by
the Apothecaries as true Cinnamon, calling it cannella. This would have
to be the same modern Cassia Americans use as “Cinnamon”. Yet we know
cassia only came from Indo-China. He describes it as “pipes” which would
mean he's thinking of Cassia, but his knowledge of the source is muddied
by distance and confused terminology. Nice to know he had the same problem
we've been having.
From the Approoved Medicines and Cordiall
receiptes: 1580, we have a description of cassia fistula
or “Black Cassia” presumably cassia negra, which agrees well in all respects
with modern senna, and indeed with Gerarde's own description of Senna, the
pods being spectacularly purgative. So here's our reason for three items
being listed. Cassia is either Cassia or "Black Cassia" (Senna). Cannella
is either Cassia, (when sold fraudulently by Apothecaries) or Cinnamon. And
Black Cassia is Senna about all the time. The confusion shown by Gerarde
was no doubt furthered to the benefit of many a trader's pocketbook. Imagine
the punishment for the servant who confused senna for cassia!
The closing notes above still apply. Confusion
of cassia and cinnamon could and did happen in period as well. Chances
are, since some in period were using true cinnamon, that Americans will either
get a perfect "do" or get a flat taste from too little spice, since American
"cinnamon" is actually cassia. At least we can be pretty sure they
didn't use senna in those recipes!
(c) 2001 by Brandy and Courtney Powers-
All Rights Reserved-
Permission Granted for non-profit educational use with the provision that
all credits are preserved. (Go ahead and post it on your web page, or print
it for non-profit use, but if you want to print it and sell it for cash,
talk to us. We sell out cheap.)
